Chapter 8
Living Constantly Remembering God
Chapter Summary
Shari'a: a complete code of life – not arbitrary but divinely revealed – Qur'an as principal source – attention to the context in which verses of the Qur'an were revealed – commentary on Qur'an (tafsir) – various schools of tafsir – the lived example of Muhammad (Sunna) – Hadith – classification of Hadith – Hadith collections – intellectual reasoning by analogy (qiyas) – devising new rulings (ijtihad) – classification of actions – schools of law – present day questions – 'Islamizing' national laws today – the penal code – jihad – the struggle against the wayward self – legitimate use of force – rules of engagement – indiscriminate killing: weapons of mass destruction, 'suicide terrorism' – the sufi path – the ascent of the heart to God – a spiritual chain – importance of the shaykh – tariqa – systematic progression: stations and states – the circle of dhikr – sufi writers – great sufi orders.
A life of taqwa, constantly remembering the will of God, is a lifelong struggle (jihad). Most Muslims seek this goal by following an external code of conduct (shari'a) while others contend that the outer struggle is based on the journey inwards (as in the Sufi tradition). These commitments are ethical as well as religious.
The code of life one follows to be muslim (to worship God in submission to divine will) is called a shari'a. The word refers to a well-beaten path or road. It is the divinely ordained pattern of living in islam taught by the Messengers. Its principles have not changed. Now, the primary source of shari'a is the Qur'an, and the best interpreter of the Qur'an is Muhammad. His interpretations are found in the Sunna, the record of the infallible pattern of his life practices. When the Qur'an and Sunna do not clearly resolve a question, human reasoning is employed. The first part of the chapter explores these three sources of Islamic legal and moral reasoning.
Qur'an: The Qur'an was revealed in time in relation to specific contexts. Knowing the asbab al-nuzul (occasions of revelation) is essential for understanding any portion of the Qur'an. These contexts were recorded in the earliest in the early histories, commentaries and Hadith. A single issue may be mentioned many times throughout the Qur'an. The discipline of Qur'anic commentary is called tafsir. The greatest tool of tafsir is a nuanced understanding of Arabic. The first school of commentary, tafsir ma'thur, was exemplified by al-Tabari (d. 923). The second school of commentary was tafsir bi al-ra'y, interpretation based on individual rational judgement, was favored by the Mu'tazilite school. Shi'a Islam developed an allegorical method of tafsir known as ta'wil.
Sunna: The early Muslim community collected records of the actions and sayings (hadith) of Muhammad. The Prophet made it clear when he speaking on his own or as the Prophet of God. There was a third category of speech, hadith qudsi, which were God's words not collected in the Qur'an. In addition to the teaching from Muhammad's lips (the matn), every authentic hadith has a reliable isnad (chain of transmission). Hadith criticism was an important development in early Islamic thought. Sunni Islam respects six great collections of hadith. Shi'a collections of hadith seek to trace the isnad back to Imam Ali. Some hadith have been brought into question by scholars using modern critical methods.
Intellectual Activity: When the Qur'an or Sunna could not be used to definitively solve a problem, personal judgment (ra'y) had to be employed. These judgments were standardized by the principle of qiyas (analogical reasoning). A given situation could be throught through in terms of a prior legal conclusion. A mujtahid is a scholar trained to engage in legal reasoning, ijtihad. This legal reasoning sought to establish a consensus (ijma) for the umma.
Classification of Actions: Islamic law recognize five categories (with some sub-categories) of human action vis-a-vis shari'a: required (fard or wajib); recommended (sunna or masnun); indifferent (mubah or ja'iz); disapproved without punishment (makruh); clearly unlawful (haram).
Schools of Law: As Islam developed and encountered complex situations, different schools of law (madhahib) developed. In the Sunni tradition, these include schools founded by Abu Hanifa, Malik ibn Anas (the Maliki School), Al-Shafi'i (who synthesized Maliki and Hanafi thought), and Ahmad ibn Hanbal (the Hanbali School, which later influenced the Wahhabi sect). Each of these schools is considered orthodox. Shi'a Islam has different schools of legal interpretation, and also believe in the infallibility of the Imams. The schools of law are available to provide guidance to contemporary Muslims. Islamic advice is today often sought over the Internet. A problem needing original research is referred to a mufti who issues a formal opinion (fatwa).
Adherence to shari'a is far more encompassing than meting our certain punishments. To be fully Islamic, a state would need to be organized around the principle of sadaqa. Muhammad's own example shows that rules must be applied with mercy and lenience. It is true that the Qur'an and Sunna provide serious consequences for certain crimes against society (such as amputation for theft and stoning for adultery). These awesome punishments find their root in early scriptures and are not administered lightly. Muslim have their own criticisms of Western forms of justice.
Jihad: Living in constant remembrance of God is a constant struggle against the wayward self. This is the al-jihad al-akbar (greater jihad). Muslims are called to struggle against sin, and to engage in full repentance (tawba). As a servant of God ('abd Allah) One must do justice, even when it is against one's interests (Q. 4.135).
The al-jihad al-asghar (lesser jihad) is the legitimate use of force against those who"do evil upon the earth" (Q. 2.190–193). While correction through teaching and argumention is preferred, Islam is not pacifistic. In all cases, jihad must be a defensive war against oppression and ungodliness. Only legitimate leaders can declare jihad. No jihad can be declared on other Muslims; they must first be condemned as unbelievers (kafir). The Caliph Abu Bakr formalized the rules for jihad, rules similar to Christian just war theory. A jihad must be declared by a legitimate ruler (a Caliph), but today there is no caliphate. There are serious debates within Islam regarding the legitimacy of modern warfare and, especially, suicide terrorism.
Sufism: The spiritual quest of Islam is as vibrant asits quest for proper legal interpretation. Mystical Islam (tasawwuf) is a journey to the heart of both humanity and God. Sufism is based explicitly on Islamic resources. Through meditative practices and Qur'anic reflection under the direction of a shaykh, Sufism seeks to bring the believer into the deepest possible knowledge of God (related through the image of Muhammad's mi'raj). This knowledge is passed down through a spiritual lineage (silsila) and is taught by a shaykh. Hasan al-Basri and Rabi'a are two famous Sufis from the Iraqi city of Basra. Sufis began asserting that just as shari'a was a guide to outer (zahiri) observance, the sufi method (tariqa) was a guide on the inner (batini) way. Al-Junayd, al-Hallaj, and Jalal ad-Din Rumi are other famous Sufis. Islam celebrates many famous produces of literature, both poetry and prose. Some Muslims, however, view Sufism as heretical and a distraction to orthodox Islam. Nevertheless, many Sufi orders (tariqa) have thrived.
Key Names, Terms, and Concepts
- shari'a
- qadi
- asbab al-nuzul
- Ibn Taymiyya
- Lord Headley
- tafsir
- al-Tabari
- tafsir ma'thur
- tafsir bi al-ra'y
- al-Zamakhshari
- Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
- al-Baydawi
- ta'wil
- hadith qudsi
- isnad
- matn
- Malik ibn Anas
- Ahmad ibn Hanbal
- Musnad
- sahih
- hasan
- da'if
- ulama
- ra'y
- qiyas
- ijtihad
- mujtahid
- ijma
- fard 'ayn
- fard kifaya
- sunna
- masnun
- mubah
- ja'iz
- makruh
- madhahi / madhhab
- Hanafi
- Maliki
- Hanbali
- Wahhabi
- bid'a
- Kharijites
- fiqh / usul al-fiqh
- fatwa
- al-jihad al-akbar
- al-jihad al-asghar
- tawba
- kafir
- tasawwuf
- silsila
- Hasan al-Basri
- Rabi'a
- zahiri
- tariqa
- batini
- al-Junayd
- al-Hallaj
- murid
Questions for Discussion and Reflection
- What is the most important tool for engaging in responsible tafsir?
- How does one most often come to be associated with a school of legal interpretation?
- Many Westerners understand shari'a to be a harsh legal code designed primarily to punish offenders. How might shari'a more fully be explained?
- Compare and contrast the theory of defensive fighting in Islam to the Christian tradition of just war theory. How have these traditions been challenged by modern realities?
- Why is it important to consider both the shari'a and Sufism together as one studies the heart of Islamic life? What does this balance tell us about Islam as a whole?
- Individual Muslims have clear resources for determining proper action in the world. Compare these Islamic resources for your own resources and methods of ethical and religious decision-making.
For Further Reading
Books
- Majid Fakhry, Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Mysticism: A Short Introduction, second ed. (Oxford: Oneworld, 2001).
- Richard C. Martin, Mark R. Woodward and Dwi S. Atmaja, Defenders of Reason in Islam: Mu'tazilism and Rational Theology from Medieval School to Modern Symbol (Oxford: Oneworld, 1997).
- Muhammad Khalid Masud, ed., Islamic Legal Interpretation: Muftis and Their Fatwas (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996).
- Seyyed Hossien Nasr, ed., Islamic Spirituality, 2 vols. (New York: Crossroad, 1997).
- Yahya ibn Sharaf al- Nawawi, Al-Nawawi's Forty Hadith, tr. Ezzeddin Ibrahim and Denys Johnson-Davies (Islamic Texts Society, 1997).
- Muhammad Baqir as-Sadr, Lessons in Islamic Jurisprudence, trans. Roy Mottahedeh (Oxford: Oneworld, 2003).
- Michael A. Sells, Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Qur'an, Mi'raj, Poetic and Theological Writings (Paulist Press, 1995).
Web sites
- "International Association of Sufism." This organization seeks to coordinate peacemaking efforts undertaken by Sufi communities. (http://www.ias.org/)
- "Usul Al Fiqh al Islami." This website from the Muslim Student Association at USC is an online translation of Taha Jabir Al 'Alwani's book, Source Methodology in Islamic Jurisprudence. (http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/law/alalwani_usulalfiqh/)
- "Towards an Islamic Jurisprudence of the Environment: Fiqh al-Bi'ah fil-Islam." This article was written by Mustafa Abu-Sway, professor in the Department of Philosophy, Al-Quds University, Jerusalem. (http://www.islamonline.net/english/Contemporary/2002/08/Article02.shtml)
- "From Defensive to Offensive Warfare: The Use and Abuse of Jihad in the Muslim World," by Abdulaziz Sachedina (U. of Virginia). (http://www.people.virginia.edu/%7Eaas/article/article8.htm)
